英语词汇应该这样教、这样学之“词汇的衔接作用”
【何谓“衔接”】
那么,衔接(cohesion)又是个什么东西呢?
在语言学领域里,所谓的衔接是指“the property of unity in a written text or a segment of spoken discourse that stems from links among its surface elements (Rf. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/cohesion?s=t)”。其中,surface elements主要包含grammatical linking和lexical linking两种衔接手段。
说得通俗点,衔接就是通过语法和词汇两种手段来来连接前后文,使得文章前后的内容保持一致。
当然,衔接的内容远不止如此简单,我们在这里只讨论词汇作为一种衔接手段的情况,以及词汇的衔接作用对于英语的教与学的启示。
【词汇衔接的种类】
英国著名的语言学家Michael Hoey在他所著的《语篇中的词汇模式(Patterns of Lexis in Text)》一文中提出,词汇的衔接主要体现在词汇的重复上。
Hoey界定的词汇重复类型有:简单词汇重复(Simple lexical repetition)、复杂词汇重复(Complex lexical repetition)、简单释义(Simple paraphrase)、复杂释义(Complex paraphrase)、上下义重复(Superordinate/Hyponymic repetition)和共指重复(Co-reference)、其他重复方式(如指示代词、人称代词、so、do等)。
1、简单词汇重复:指的是文章先出现了某个词,接着在文章后面先后出现了同样的词,或是通过该词的基本语法变形(如名词的单复数变化)产生的词语。如:bears和bear。
2、复杂词汇重复:指的是文章先出现了某个词,接着在文章后面出现了与该词同源的其他词性的词语。如:drug和drugging。
3、简单释义:指的是在不改变具体意思的情况下,前后文出现的近义表达。如:take care of和look after。
4、复杂释义:指的是前后文出现的同属一个语义范畴的单词或短语,也包括反义词。如:doctor和nurse;happy和unhappy。
5、上下义重复:指的是前后文出现的单词或短语存在语义相互包含关系。如:biologists和scientists,生物学家属于科学家范畴。
6、共指重复:指的是前后文出现的单词或短语指的是同一个人或物。如:John Smith与the engineer,John Smith就是the engineer,the engineer就是John Smith。
7、其他:以代词为例,如果前文出现了Jack,后文再出现he,两者即存在词汇衔接关系。
为了帮助大家理解以上7中词汇衔接手段,请看下面两篇文章是如何通过词汇手段来实现前后文的衔接的。
【文章示例1】
我们来看下面这篇文章,为了方便说明,小编对文章的句子进行了编号。
1) The isolating effects of human development are causing a sharp decline in genetic diversity among mountain lions in Southern California, a new study says.
2) Researchers from the University of California, Davis, collected DNA samples from more than 350 mountain lions throughout California and found that animals separated by little more than a highway have far less genetic material in common than they did just 80 years ago, suggesting that there is far less interbreeding among populations.
3) Pumas in the Santa Ana Mountains — effectively fenced in by Interstate 15 tothe east, the Pacific Ocean to the west and Los Angeles to the north —displayed lower genetic diversity than those from nearly any other region inthe state.
4) So severe is their isolation that the Santa Ana pumas have more in common genetically with lions 400 miles to the north than their neighbors in the Santa Monica Mountains.
5) Tests revealed that the decline in diversity had taken place “within four to six mountain lion generations,” said Holly Ernest, lead author of the study in PLOS One.
6) “So we know that this is happening on a recent time scale” and is a likely result of human development rather than natural separation from other mountain lions.
7) “Genetically diverse populations are better able to handle whatever nature or humans throw at them, like climate change or disease,” said Dr. Ernest, a geneticist now at the University of Wyoming.
8) “If mountain lions lose that genetic diversity, they lose that resilience.”
该文的词汇衔接情况如下:
1、简单词汇重复(Simple lexical repetition):如2)和5)中的mountain lions。
2、复杂词汇重复(Complex lexical repetition):如1)中的isolated和4)中的isolation。
3、简单释义(Simple paraphrase):如4)中的isolation和6)中的separation。
4、复杂释义(Complex paraphrase):如1)中的a sharp declinein genetic diversity和8)中的lose that genetic diversity。
5、上下义关系:如2)中的animals和1)中的mountain lions。
6、共指关系(Co-reference):如3)中的pumas in theSanta Ana Mountains和4)中的the Santa Anapumas。
7、其他重复方式:如3)中的pumas in theSanta Ana Mountains和4)中的their;2)中的did和2)中的have;6)中的this和5)中的“the decline …had taken place …”。
通过这个分析,我们可以看出,该文重复率较高的词汇有:pumas、mountain lions、isolation、decline、genetic diversity。所以,读者几乎无需仔细阅读文章,就可以总结出文章的主旨:因为isolation,导致mountain lions在genetic diversity上下降。
【文章示例2】
我们再来看《新概念英语》经典版第二册第80课的课文:
1)Perhaps the most extraordinary building of the nineteenth century was the Crystal Palace, which was built in Hyde Park for the Great Exhibition of 1851. 2)TheCrystal Palace was different from all other buildings in the world, for it was made of iron and glass. 3)It was one of the biggest buildings of all time and a lot of people from many countries came to see it. 4)A great many goods were sent to the exhibition from various parts of the world. 5)There was also a great deal of machinery on display. 6)The most wonderful piece of machinery on show was Nasmyth's steam hammer. 7)Though in those days, traveling was not as easy as it is today, steam boats carried thousands of visitors across the Channel from Europe. 8)On arriving in England, they were taken to the Crystal Palace by train. 9)There were six million visitors in all, and the profits from the exhibition were used to build museums and colleges. 10)Later, the Crystal Palace was moved to South London. 11)It remained one of the most famous buildings in the world until it was burnt down in 1936.
假如说这篇文章没有标题而题目要求给出标题的话,我们就可以通过研究该文词汇的衔接情况,很快得出答案:The Crystal Palace,因为这个短语在前后文中反复出现,说明这个短语是全文的话题中心。
该文的词汇衔接情况如下:
1、简单词汇重复:1)、2)和11)中的the Crystal Palace;1)中的exhibition和9)中的exhibition;5)和6)中的machinery;7)和9)中的visitors。
2、复杂词汇重复:1)中的building、built、2)、3)和11)中的buildings以及9)中的build。
3、简单释义:1)中的the most extraordinary building和11)中的one of the most famous buildings。
4、复杂释义:7)中的traveling、visitors、8)中的arriving、taken to和9)中的visitors。
5、上下义关系:1)中的building和the Crystal Palace;5)中的machinery和6)中的Nasmyth’s steam hammer。
6、共指关系:3)中的a lot of people和7)中的visitors。
7、其他重复方式:3)中的it和2)中的the Crystal Palace;3)中的one与2)中的buildings。
【词汇衔接对教学的启示】
通过以上分析,对于我们今后的词汇教学可以得出以下启示:
1)词汇的数量:重在常用,不在量多——以常用单词的教与学为重
2)词汇的分类:重在功能,不在多少——着重掌握功能词和实词
3)词汇的意义:重在搭配,不在定义——不要单独学单词,而要在语
境中学
4)词汇的衔接:重在篇章,不在词句——要注重文章的结构,而不是一个个单词
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