TE||The largest blip
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The largest blip
最大的光点,是信号还是噪音?
本文英文部分选自经济学人Finance and economics版块
Emerging markets
新兴市场
Do credit booms foretell crises?
“信贷繁荣”是否预示着危机的到来?
ON THE morning of December 7th 1941, George Elliott Junior noticed “the largest blip” he had ever seen on a radar near America’s naval base at Pearl Harbour. His discovery was dismissed by his superiors, who were thus unprepared for the Japanese bombers that arrived shortly after. The mistake prompted urgent research into“receiver operating characteristics”, the ability of radar operators to distinguish between true and false alarms.
1941年12月7日的早上,三等兵乔治·埃利奥特(George Elliott )在珍珠港美国海军基地附近的雷达上看到一个很大的光点(这是他曾经看到过的最大的光点)。他的发现被他的上级驳回了,也因此他们对于之后突如其来的日本轰炸机毫无戒备之心。这一失误引起了对无线电接收机操作原理以及雷达操作员区分真假警报信号能力的迫切研究。
1941年12月7日早晨7时02分,正在雷达观察站值班的三等兵乔治·埃利奥特突然看到雷达屏幕上有个很大的光点,这个光点很大,以至于看上去像是系统出了问题。他和值班的战友立即打电话向克米特·泰勒中尉报告,泰勒中尉认为那是B-17战斗机群。但埃利奥特坚持认为是别的什么。泰勒中尉说:“不必担心,去吃早饭吧。”埃利奥特便离开了雷达观察站。
A similar concern motivates research at the Bank for International Settlements (BIS) in Basel, Switzerland. Its equivalent to the radar is a set of economic indicators that can potentially detect the approach of financial crises. A prominent example is the “credit gap”, which measures the divergence between the level of credit to households and non-financial firms, expressed as a percentage of GDP, and its long-term trend. A big gap may reflect the kind of unsustainable credit boom that often precedes a crisis. Anything above 9% of GDP is reason to worry, according to Iñaki Aldasoro, Claudio Borio and Mathias Drehmann of the BIS.
类似的问题引起了总部位于瑞士的巴塞尔国际清算银行(BIS)的研究兴趣。一系列的经济指标体系等同于雷达,用于探测潜在的金融危机的走向。信贷缺口就是一个突出的例子,它衡量的是家庭及非金融企业信贷水平(家庭及非金融企业信贷规模在GDP中的占比)与其长期的发展趋势之间的差距。巨大的信贷缺口可能反映出一种不可持续的信贷繁荣,而这种繁荣泡沫往往发生在金融危机之前(暴风雨前的平静)。根据国际清算银行的Iñaki Aldasoro、Claudio Borio和Mathias Drehmann的说法,信贷缺口高于9%都是值得担忧的。
The biggest blips on the oscilloscope include Canada (9.6%), Singapore (11.1%) and Switzerland (16.3%), according to the latest readings, released on March 11th. But the one that has kept everyone’s eyes peeled is China, with a gap of 16.7% in the third quarter of2017 (the latest BIS figure available).
根据3月11日国际清算银行(BIS))发布的最新数据,电子示波器上最大的信号光点包括加拿大(9.6%)、新加坡(11.1%)和瑞士(16.3%)。 但值得警惕观察的是中国,2017年第三季度的信贷缺口为16.7%.(新的国际清算银行可用数据显示)
As a crisis-detector, the credit gap has some appealing operating characteristics. It can be estimated quarterly across many economies. And, according to Mr Aldasoro and his co-authors, it would have predicted 80% of the crises since 1980 in the countries and periods for which data are available.
作为一个经济危机探测指标,信贷缺口有一些吸引人的操作特征。它能够通过季度性测算,对比多个经济体指标状况。而且,据阿尔达索罗先生和他的合著者指出,它预测到了自1980年以来一些国家和有数据记载时期80%的危机。
The problem is that it has also predicted many crises that never arrived. When such early-warning indicators flash red, the chance of a crises in the next three year is “around 50%”, says Mr Drehmann. The BIS provides over 5200 credit-gap readings for the period since 1980.In over 850 instances, the gap exceeded 9% but skies remained clear.
问题在于,它预测的许多危机从来没发生。德瑞曼表示:当指标出现红色预警时,未来三年内出现信贷危机的机率大约会在50%,自1980年以来,国际清算银行提供了超过5200篇与信贷缺口问题相关的文章。在超过850个的实例中,这个信贷缺口超过了9%,但经济形势依旧晴朗向好态势
The problems seem worse in emerging markets. Their data are patchier, covering just 13 crises. Of this unfortunate number, only eight were preceded by a big credit gap. (Another three struck within three years of the start of the data, which may be too early to provide a fair test of the indicator.) There have been many false alarms. The credit gap flashed red almost continuously in Chile in 1993-2002, reaching over 24%, but no crisis followed. It was also persistently large in the Czech Republic in 2007-14 and in Hungary in 2000-10 without any great trauma ensuring. The indicator successfully predicted the “Asian flu” in Indonesia, Malaysia and South Korea in the late 1990s, but only after sounding a false alarm in all three countries in the 1980s.
这个问题在新兴市场看起来更为严重。它们的数据更加零碎,只涵盖了13次危机。对于这个很不幸的数字,只有8次出现了巨大的信贷缺口。(另外3次发生在数据开始被记录的三年内,那个时候可能还为时过早,无法对该指标进行公平测试)。那会出现了很多虚假警报。1993年至2002年,智利的信贷缺口冲破了24%,频频发出红色预警,但危机并未出现。在2007至2014年的捷克共和国以及2000至2010年的匈牙利,信贷缺口也很大,然而也没有带来重大的创伤。该指数在上世纪九十年代成功地预测了波及印度尼西亚、马来西亚和南韩的“亚洲流感”(指亚洲金融风暴),但也只是在上世纪80年代虚假警报在这三个国家被拉响之后。
What about China? Paul Samuelson, a Nobel-prize winning economist, once joked that the stockmarket had predicted nine out of America’s last five recessions. Similarly, the credit gap predicted at least three out of China’s last zero crises. It rose above 9% in mid-2003, mid-2009 and mid-2012, where it has stayed since. China’s comeuppance may still arrive. But the gap is now closing rapidly. It has decreased from almost 29% in the first quarter of 2016 to less than 13% at the end of last year, according to The Economist’s calculations.
那么中国的情况如何呢?诺贝尔经济学奖的获得者保罗·萨缪尔森(Paul Samuelson)曾开玩笑地说,在美国过去的五次经济大萧条里,证券市场砖家们成功地预测到了9次(讽刺专 家预测的不靠谱)。同样,据预测中国信贷缺口危机至少要发生三次,结果根本没发生(坑爹)。在2003年中期、2009年中期和2012年中期,信贷缺口一直保持在9%以上。中国信贷缺口或许尚存危机隐患,然而现在这个缺口迅速下降。《经济学人》数据统计结果显示,2016年第一个季度中国信贷缺口几乎高达29%,而在2017年年末,信贷缺口已下降到不足13%。
One obvious explanation for China’s resilience is that its credit is mostly home-grown, extended by domestic banks and other Chinese lenders. By contrast the crisis-struck emerging economies mostly relied on inflows of foreign capital to finance their current-account deficits with the rest of the world. Looking at both current-account gaps and credit gaps may provide better predictions, says Michael Spencer of Deutsche Bank. He calculates that China’s risk of a financial crisis this year is less than 8% (assuming a credit gap of under 13%) partly because it runs a current-account surplus of about 1.4% of GDP. If China’s government keeps credit stable as a share of GDP this year, this crisis-risk could fall to about 5%.
中国经济迅速复苏的一个主要原因是,中国的信贷主要是由国内银行和其它中资银行提供的。相比而言,深陷危机影响的新兴经济体则主要依靠外国资本流入,来填补与其它国家的经常账户赤字。德意志银行的迈克尔斯宾塞(Michael Spencer)指出,把经常账户缺口和信贷缺口结合起来分析可提高预测的准确度。他计算出,2018年中国发生金融危机的风险低于8%(假设信贷缺口低于13%),部分原因是中国经常账户盈余约占GDP的1.4%;如果中国政府保持今年GDP份额中的信贷平稳增长,金融危机风险则会降到5%左右。
On that day of infamy in 1941, Mr Elliott took the radar blip far more seriously than his fellow operator did, despite being less experienced. Perhaps this should not be surprising. After less than three months of radar-watching, Mr Elliott was not yet jaded by routine. If a financial crisis eventually strikes China, many people will be caught out—not because of a lack of warnings, but because of too many.
在1941年的那个毁灭性的日子里,尽管埃利奥特先生的经验不足,但他比他的同行们更加严谨对待雷达信息。尽管雷达监视工作重复性很强,但不到三个月的时间还不足以使他变得消极怠工。如果金融危机最终袭击中国,很多人都会遭殃----不是因为缺少警告,而是因为过犹不及。
翻译组:
Olivia,女,教育行业,经济学人粉丝
Meiling,女,机械贸易行业,经济学人粉丝
Lucia ,女,翻译学硕士三年制,经济学人粉丝
校核组:
Emily,女,金融民工,经济学人粉丝
Fiona, 女 ,教雅思的民工, 经济学人粉丝
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观点 |评论|思考
本次观点由金融民工Lulu全权执笔
划重点:单身
关于BIS所设计的指标体系,信贷比率缺口(Credit-to-GDP gap)即“家庭与非金融企业信贷规模在GDP中的占比”与其长期趋势之间的差距(名字是真有点长)。其实究其本质,或者你可以简单地理解为,就是信贷增速与GDP增速的差异(因为这两者之间的差异大,则与其长期趋势形成的平滑曲线之间的差异越大)。
用它来推断金融危机背后的逻辑是:信贷规模过快扩张意味着金融市场负债率较高,总体杠杆倍数上升,若伴随资产价格大幅上升,可能意味着增长的大部分信贷资金并未落实到实体经济中,此时资本市场存在泡沫,这将导致银行业等金融机构的财务危机。
理解这个逻辑,我们可以从两方面来讲。首先是概念里说到的信贷增速与GDP增速的背离。关于GDP,其定义为一个国家(或地区)所有常住单位在一定时期内生产的全部最终产品和服务价值的总和,你可以理解为实体经济的最佳写照,于此相对应的是实体杠杆(包括政府债务、企业债务和居民债务),而信贷增速背离GDP增速的部分就是金融杠杆,也就是金融机构互相之间所产生的债务,这种不基于实体的资产负债表的无限制扩大掩藏了极大的金融风险,也就带来了“三去一降一补”。
另外,有一个有助于理解但科学程度并不100%的公式,而且时间上有一定滞后性,即M2增速=GDP增速+CPI增长,(M2是货币供应量的缩影,推导一下背后的基础货币,算上贷款乘数,可以得出贷款量),也就是说,除了满足GDP的增长,超发的那部分货币或者超贷的那些贷款在进入人间后,就形成了我们的通货膨胀,当然无论是你菜篮子里的价格增长还是房价的飙升(能够科学进入“统计局数据”的应该涨幅不大,比如去年杭州的新房价格,甚至还微跌)。
不过从文中的图也看得出来,目前情况有所好转。一方面是经济的周期性上行,企业盈利的改善,使得企业融资可以更多依赖自有资金而非举债;而另一方面央行也是控紧了货币的总闸门,从2017年以来,M2增速持续下降,也是某种高层意志意识到不可不控的体现。
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